Rabu, 22 Desember 2010

Manusia, Mahluk Sosial Pencipta dan Pengguna Kebudayaan

Manusia, Mahluk Sosial Pencipta dan Pengguna Kebudayaan

Terciptanya sebuah kebudayaan bukan hanya dari buah pikir dan budi manusia, tetapi juga dikarenakan adanya interaksi antara manusia dengan alam sekitarnya. Bahkan dalam agama, dikatakan manusia sebagai khalifah atau pemimpin di bumi ini. Maka ia pun dianugerahi daya cipta, rasa dan karsa yang luar biasa dari Sang Maha Pencipta.

Sebuah dialektika terjadi disini, sebab kebudayaan itu ada karena diciptakan oleh manusia, dan manusia hidup di antara kebudayaan yang diciptakannya sendiri. Oleh karenanya kebudayaan akan terus ada jika manusia pun ada.

Definisi Sosial Budaya pun dapat berkembang dan tercipta karena adanya kaitan erat antara kebudayaan dan sosial itu sendiri. Perubahan kebudayaan bisa saja terjadi akibat adanya perubahan sosial dalam masyarakat, begitu pula hal yang sebaliknya pun dapat terjadi.

Peran dan Dampak Negatif Sosial Budaya

Kita pun perlu mengetahui peran dan dampak negaif untuk lebih memahami definisi sosial budaya. Jadi, kebudayaan pun memiliki peran dalam kehidupan sosial manusia, diantaranya adalah:

   1. Sebagai pedoman dalam hubungan antara manusia dengan komunitas atau <blockquote><blockquote><strike><strike></strike></strike></blockquote></blockquote> kelompoknya.
   2. Sebagai simbol pembeda antara manusia dengan binatang
   3. Sebagai petunjuk atau tata cara tentang bagaimana manusia harus berperilaku dalam kehidupan sosialnya.
   4. Sebagai modal dan dasar dalam pembangunan kehidupan manusia.

Tidak berarti pula penciptaan sosial budaya itu kemudian tak memiliki dampak negatif. Bila kebudayaan yang ada kemudian menimbulkan ekses negatif bagi kehidupan sosial adalah sesuatu yang perlu dipikirkan ulang, jika ingin menciptakan sebuah budaya.

Beberapa dampak negatif kebudayaan bagi kehidupan sosial manusia, antara lain:

   1. Menimbulkan kerusakan lingkungan dan kelangsungan ekosistem alam
   2. Mengakibatkan adanya kesenjangan sosial yang kemudian menjadi penyebab munculnya penyakit-penyakit sosial, termasuknya tingginya tingkat kriminalitas.
   3. Mengurangi bahkan dapat menghilangkan ikatan batin dan moral yang biasanya dekat dalam hubungan sosial antar masyarakat.

Contoh: Situs jejaring sosial yang banyak bermunculan membuat orang tak memiliki kebutuhan untuk bertemu langsung. Sehingga terkikislah kebutuhan berkumpul dengan ilusi pertemuan di dunia maya.

Tidak menutup kemungkinan pula suatu hari nanti, kehidupan sosial manusia dapat musnah karena budaya yang mereka ciptakan sendiri. Atau, memang begitulah terciptanya kiamat yang telah ditakdirkan terjadi. Mari, berpikirlah!

PERADABAN

Peradaban memiliki berbagai arti dalam kaitannya dengan masyarakat manusia. Seringkali istilah ini digunakan untuk merujuk pada suatu masyarakat yang "kompleks": dicirikan oleh praktik dalam pertanian, hasil karya dan pemukiman, berbanding dengan budaya lain, anggota-anggota sebuah peradaban akan disusun dalam beragam pembagian kerja yang rumit dalam struktur hirarki sosial.

Istilah peradaban sering digunakan sebagai persamaan yang lebih luas dari istilah "budaya" yang populer dalam kalangan akademis. [1] Dimana setiap manusia dapat berpartisipasi dalam sebuah budaya, yang dapat diartikan sebagai "seni, adat istiadat, kebiasaan ... kepercayaan, nilai, bahan perilaku dan kebiasaan dalam tradisi yang merupakan sebuah cara hidup masyarakat". [2] Namun, dalam definisi yang paling banyak digunakan, peradaban adalah istilah deskriptif yang relatif dan kompleks untuk pertanian dan budaya kota. Peradaban dapat dibedakan dari budaya lain oleh kompleksitas dan organisasi sosial dan beragam kegiatan ekonomi dan budaya.

Dalam sebuah pemahaman lama tetapi masih sering dipergunakan adlah istilah "peradaban" dapat digunakan dalam cara sebagai normatif baik dalam konteks sosial di mana rumit dan budaya kota yang dianggap unggul lain "ganas" atau "biadab" budaya, konsep dari "peradaban" digunakan sebagai sinonim untuk "budaya (dan sering moral) Keunggulan dari kelompok tertentu." Dalam artian yang sama, peradaban dapat berarti "perbaikan pemikiran, tata krama, atau rasa". [3] masyarakat yang mempraktikkan pertanian secara intensif; memiliki pembagian kerja; dan kepadatan penduduk yang mencukupi untuk membentuk kota-kota. "Peradaban" dapat juga digunakan dalam konteks luas untuk merujuk pada seluruh atau tingkat pencapaian manusia dan penyebarannya (peradaban manusia atau peradaban global). Istilah peradaban sendiri sebenarnya bisa digunakan sebagai sebuah upaya manusia untuk memakmurkan dirinya dan kehidupannya. Maka, dalam sebuah peradaban pasti tidak akan dilepaskan dari tiga faktor yang menjadi tonggak berdirinya sebuah peradaban. Ketiga faktor tersebut adalah sistem pemerintahan, sistem ekonomi, dan IPTEK.

social problem

What is a social problem?

What is a social problem? Use two examples of social problems to illustrate your answerSocial problems are an integral part of social life. The term ‘social problem’ refers to social conditions, processes and attitudes that are commonly perceived to be negative and undesirable (Jamrozik et al. 1998). A social problem is something that threatens the values of society such as law and order, social cohesion and the stability of social institutions. However some of the social conditions we now ignore may well come to be seen as social problems in the future. Similarly some of the societal arrangements that we consider to be social problems now were not so considered in earlier times (Rubington & Weinberg. 2003). What then makes a social problem?Manning (1998) argues that social problems need to be distinguished from the mere existence of common problems with reference to three points: The extent to which they are perceived; the judgements made about them and the actions recommended to deal with them (I.C.J.S p.6). When we ask groups of people in society about the main social problems that face Britain there is an enormous variety of answers (Butterworth & Weir. 1974). The extent, to which they are perceived as social .

The report stated that institutional racism was an issue not just for the police, but also for all public and private institutions. The fact that racism has been around for so long demonstrates how ingrained and enduring prejudices towards a minority group can be (Giddens. It is a predisposition to respond to a certain stimulus in a certain way (Butterworth & Weir. 42) The word poverty suggests an undesirable state. This is essentially the concept still used most frequently in the analysis of poverty worldwide. Oppenheim & Harker (1996) suggest that, "Absolute poverty assumes that it is possible to define a minimum standard of living based on a persons biological needs for food, water, clothing and shelter. An absolute definition of poverty tries to measure the problem in respect of resources required for basic human needs to maintain health and physical efficiency (Haralambos & Holborn. Hence groups such as the National Front and the Anti-Nazi league are created. As poverty and racism both fall into this category they can be deemed social problems. The first point to make in respect of the definition of poverty is that it is a relative concept. There is a great outcry for a few days followed by silence.

Sabtu, 18 Desember 2010

A THOUSAND SUN

The Great Pyramid of Giza
The great pyramid of giza
The Great Pyramid of Giza is the one and only Wonder which does not require a description by early historians and poets. It is the one and only Wonder that does not need speculations concerning its appearance, size, and shape. It is the oldest, yet it is the only surviving of the Seven Ancient Wonders. It is the Great Pyramid of Giza.

Location
At the city of Giza, a necropolis of ancient Memphis, and today part of Greater Cairo, Egypt.

History
Contrary to the common belief, only the Great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops), not all three Great Pyramids, is on top of the list of Wonders. The monument was built by the Egyptian pharaoh Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty around the year 2560 BC to serve as a tomb when he dies. The tradition of pyramid building started in Ancient Egypt as a sophistication of the idea of a mastaba or "platform" covering the royal tomb. Later, several stacked mastabas were used. Early pyramids, such as the Step Pyramid of King Zoser (Djoser) at Saqqara by the famous Egyptian architect, Imhotep, illustrate this connection.

The great pyramid is believed to have been built over a 20 year period. The site was first prepared, and blocks of stone were transported and placed. An outer casing (which disappeared over the years) was then used to smooth the surface. Although it is not known how the blocks were put in place, several theories have been proposed. One theory involves the construction of a straight or spiral ramp that was raised as the construction proceeded. This ramp, coated with mud and water, eased the displacement of the blocks which were pushed (or pulled) into place. A second theory suggests that the blocks were placed using long levers with a short angled foot.

Throughout their history, the pyramids of Giza have stimulated human imagination. They were referred to as "The Granaries of Joseph" and "The Mountains of Pharaoh". When Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798, his pride was expressed through his famous quote: "Soldats! Du haute de ces Pyramides, 40 siècles nous contemplent". (Soldiers! From the top of these Pyramids, 40 centuries are looking at us)

Today, the Great Pyramid is enclosed, together with the other pyramids and the Sphinx, in the touristic region of the Giza Plateau. Also in the area is the museum housing the mysterious Sun Boat, only discovered in 1954 near the south side of the pyramid. The boat is believed to have been used to carry the body of Khufu in his last journey on earth before being buried inside the pyramid. It may also serve him as a means of transportation in his afterlife journey according to Ancient Egyptian beliefs.

Description
When it was built, the Great pyramid was 145.75 m (481 ft) high. Over the years, it lost 10 m (30 ft) off its top. It ranked as the tallest structure on Earth for more than 43 centuries, only to be surpassed in height in the nineteenth century AD. It was covered with a casing of stones to smooth its surface (some of the casing can still be seen near the top of Khefre's pyramid). The sloping angle of its sides is 54 degrees 54 minutes. Each side is carefully oriented with one of the cardinal points of the compass, that is, north, south, east, and west. The horizontal cross section of the pyramid is square at any level, with each side measuring 229 m (751 ft) in length. The maximum error between side lengths is astonishingly less than 0.1%.

The structure consists of approximately 2 million blocks of stone, each weighing more than two tons. It has been suggested that there are enough blocks in the three pyramids to build a 3 m (10 ft) high, 0.3 m (1 ft) thick wall around France. The area covered by the Great pyramid can accommodate St Peter's in Rome, the cathedrals of Florence and Milan, and Westminster and St Paul's in London combined.

On the north face, is the pyramid's entrance. A number of corridors, galleries, and escape shafts either lead to the King's burial chamber, or were intended to serve other functions. The King's chamber is located at the heart of the pyramid, only accessible through the Great Gallery and an ascending corridor. The King's sarcophagus is made of red granite, as are the interior walls of the King's Chamber. Most impressive is the sharp-edged stone over the doorway which is over 3 m (10 ft) long, 2.4 m (8 feet) high and 1.3 m (4 ft) thick. All of the interior stones fit so well, a card won't fit between them. The sarcophagus is oriented in accordance with the compass directions, and is only about 1 cm smaller in dimensions than the chamber entrance. It might have been introduced as the structure was progressing.

New theories concerning the origin and purpose of the Pyramids of Giza have been proposed... Astronomic observatories... Places of cult worship... Geometric structures constructed by a long-gone civilization... Even extraterrestrial-related theories have been proposed with little evidence in support... The overwhelming scientific and historic evidence still supports the conclusion that, like many smaller pyramids in the region, the Great Pyramids were built by the great Ancient Egyptian civilization off the West bank of the Nile as tombs for their magnificent Kings... Tombs where Khufu, Khefre, and Menkaure could start their mystic journey to the afterlife.


The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon... Fruits and flowers... Waterfalls... Gardens hanging from the palace terraces... Exotic animals... This is the picture of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon in most people's minds. It may be surprising to know that they might have never existed except in Greek poets and historians imagination!

Location
On the east bank of the River Euphrates, about 50 km south of Baghdad, Iraq.

History
The Babylonian kingdom flourished under the rule of the famous King, Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). It was not until the reign of Naboplashar (625-605 BC) of the Neo-Babylonian dynasty that the Mesopotamian civilization reached its ultimate glory. His son, Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562 BC) is credited for building the legendary Hanging Gardens. It is said that the Gardens were built by Nebuchadnezzar to please his wife or concubine who had been "brought up in Media and had a passion for mountain surroundings".

While the most descriptive accounts of the Gardens come from Greek historians such as Berossus and Diodorus Siculus, Babylonian records stay silent on the matter. Tablets from the time of Nebuchadnezzar do not have a single reference to the Hanging Gardens, although descriptions of his palace, the city of Babylon, and the walls are found. Even the historians who give detailed descriptions of the Hanging Gardens never saw them. Modern historians argue that when Alexander's soldiers reached the fertile land of Mesopotamia and saw Babylon, they were impressed. When they later returned to their rugged homeland, they had stories to tell about the amazing gardens and palm trees at Mesopotamia.. About the palace of Nebuchadnezzar.. About the Tower of Babel and the ziggurats. And it was the imagination of poets and ancient historians that blended all these elements together to produce one of the World Wonders.

It wasn't until the twentieth century that some of the mysteries surrounding the Hanging Gardens were revealed. Archaeologists are still struggling to gather enough evidence before reaching the final conclusions about the location of the Gardens, their irrigation system, and their true appearance.

Description
Detailed descriptions of the Gardens come from ancient Greek sources, including the writings of Strabo and Philo of Byzantium. Here are some excerpts from their accounts:

"The Garden is quadrangular, and each side is four plethra long. It consists of arched vaults which are located on checkered cube-like foundations.. The ascent of the uppermost terrace-roofs is made by a stairway..."

"The Hanging Garden has plants cultivated above ground level, and the roots of the trees are embedded in an upper terrace rather than in the earth. The whole mass is supported on stone columns... Streams of water emerging from elevated sources flow down sloping channels... These waters irrigate the whole garden saturating the roots of plants and keeping the whole area moist. Hence the grass is permanently green and the leaves of trees grow firmly attached to supple branches... This is a work of art of royal luxury and its most striking feature is that the labor of cultivation is suspended above the heads of the spectators".

More recent archaeological excavations at the ancient city of Babylon in Iraq uncovered the foundation of the palace. Other findings include the Vaulted Building with thick walls and an irrigation well near the southern palace. A group of archaeologists surveyed the area of the southern palace and reconstructed the Vaulted Building as the Hanging Gardens. However, the Greek historian Strabo had stated that the gardens were situated by the River Euphrates. So others argue that the site is too far from the Euphrates to support the theory since the Vaulted Building is several hundreds of meters away. They reconstructed the site of the palace and located the Gardens in the area stretching from the River to the Palace. On the river banks, recently discovered massive walls 25 m thick may have been stepped to form terraces... the ones described in Greek references.


The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
Is the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus simply a temple? How could it take its place among other unique structures such as the Pyramid, the Hanging Gardens, and the Colossus of Rhodes? For the people who actually visited it, the answer was simple. It was not just a temple... It was the most beautiful structure on earth... It was built in honor of the Greek goddess of hunting and wild nature. That was the Temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus.

Location
The ancient city of Ephesus near the modern town of Selcuk, about 50 km south of Izmir (Smyrna) in Turkey.

History
Although the foundation of the temple dates back to the seventh century BC, the structure that earned a spot in the list of Wonders was built around 550 BC. Referred to as the great marble temple, or temple D, it was sponsored by the Lydian king Croesus and was designed by the Greek architect Chersiphron. It was decorated with bronze statues sculpted by the most skilled artists of their time: Pheidias, Polycleitus, Kresilas, and Phradmon.

The temple served as both a marketplace and a religious institution. For years, the sanctuary was visited by merchants, tourists, artisans, and kings who paid homage to the goddess by sharing their profits with her. Recent archeological excavations at the site revealed gifts from pilgrims including statuettes of Artemis made of gold and ivory... earrings, bracelets, and necklaces... artifacts from as far as Persia and India.

On the night of 21 July 356 BC, a man named Herostratus burned the temple to ground in an attempt to immortalize his name. He did indeed. Strangely enough, Alexander the Great was born the same night. The Roman historian Plutarch later wrote that the goddess was "too busy taking care of the birth of Alexander to send help to her threatened temple". Over the next two decades, the temple was restored and is labeled "temple E" by archeologists. And when Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor, he helped rebuild the destroyed temple.

When St Paul visited Ephesus to preach Christianity in the first century AD, he was confronted by the Artemis' cult who had no plans to abandon their goddess. And when the temple was again destroyed by the Goths in AD 262, the Ephesians vowed to rebuild. By the fourth century AD, most Ephesians had converted to Christianity and the temple lost its religious glamor. The final chapter came when in AD 401 the Temple of Artemis was torn down by St John Chrysostom. Ephesus was later deserted, and only in the late nineteenth century has the site been excavated. The digging revealed the temple's foundation and the road to the now swampy site. Attempts were recently made to rebuilt the temple, but only a few columns have been re-erected.

Description
The foundation of the temple was rectangular in form, similar to most temples at the time. Unlike other sanctuaries, however, the building was made of marble, with a decorated façade overlooking a spacious courtyard. Marble steps surrounding the building platform led to the high terrace which was approximately 80 m (260 ft) by 130 m (430 ft) in plan. The columns were 20 m (60 ft) high with Ionic capitals and carved circular sides. There were 127 columns in total, aligned orthogonally over the whole platform area, except for the central cella or house of the goddess.

The temple housed many works of art, including four ancient bronze statues of Amazons sculpted by the finest artists at the time. When St Paul visited the city, the temple was adorned with golden pillars and silver statuettes, and was decorated with paintings. There is no evidence that a statue of the goddess herself was placed at the center of the sanctuary, but there is no reason not to believe so.

The early detailed descriptions of the temple helped archeologists reconstruct the building. Many reconstructions such as that by H.F. von Erlach depicted the façade with a four-column porch which never existed. More accurate reconstructions may give us an idea about the general layout of the temple. However, its true beauty lies in the architectural and artistic details which will forever remain unknown.


The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
The Statue of Zeus at Olympia is the statue of the god in whose honor the Ancient Olympic games were held. It was located on the land that gave its very name to the Olympics. At the time of the games, wars stopped, and athletes came from Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Sicily to celebrate the Olympics and to worship their king of gods: Zeus.

Location
At the ancient town of Olympia, on the west coast of modern Greece, about 150 km west of Athens.

History
The ancient Greek calendar starts in 776 BC, for the Olympic games are believed to have started that year. The magnificent temple of Zeus was designed by the architect Libon and was built around 450 BC. Under the growing power of ancient Greece, the simple Doric-style temple seemed too mundane, and modifications were needed. The solution: A majestic statue. The Athenian sculptor Pheidias was assigned for the "sacred" task, reminiscent of Michelangelo's paintings at the Sistine Chapel.

For the years that followed, the temple attracted visitors and worshippers from all over the world. In the second century BC repairs were skillfully made to the aging statue. In the first century AD, the Roman emperor Caligula attempted to transport the statue to Rome. However, his attempt failed when the scaffolding built by Caligula's workmen collapsed. After the Olympic games were banned in AD 391 by the emperor Theodosius I as Pagan practices, the temple of Zeus was ordered closed.

Olympia was further struck by earthquakes, landslides and floods, and the temple was damaged by fire in the fifth century AD. Earlier, the statue had been transported by wealthy Greeks to a palace in Constantinople. There, it survived until it was destroyed by a severe fire in AD 462. Today nothing remains at the site of the old temple except rocks and debris, the foundation of the buildings, and fallen columns.

Description
Pheidias began working on the statue around 440 BC. Years earlier, he had developed a technique to build enormous gold and ivory statues. This was done by erecting a wooden frame on which sheets of metal and ivory were placed to provide the outer covering. Pheidias' workshop in Olympia still exists, and is coincidentally -- or may be not -- identical in size and orientation to the temple of Zeus. There, he sculpted and carved the different pieces of the statue before they were assembled in the temple.

When the statue was completed, it barely fitted in the temple. Strabo wrote:
".. although the temple itself is very large, the sculptor is criticized for not having appreciated the correct proportions. He has shown Zeus seated, but with the head almost touching the ceiling, so that we have the impression that if Zeus moved to stand up he would unroof the temple."
Strabo was right, except that the sculptor is to be commended, not criticized. It is this size impression that made the statue so wonderful. It is the idea that the king of gods is capable of unroofing the temple if he stood up that fascinated poets and historians alike. The base of the statue was about 6.5 m (20 ft) wide and 1.0 meter (3 ft) high. The height of the statue itself was 13 m (40 ft), equivalent to a modern 4-story building.

The statue was so high that visitors described the throne more than Zeus body and features. The legs of the throne were decorated with sphinxes and winged figures of Victory. Greek gods and mythical figures also adorned the scene: Apollo, Artemis, and Niobe's children. The Greek Pausanias wrote:
On his head is a sculpted wreath of olive sprays. In his right hand he holds a figure of Victory made from ivory and gold... In his left hand, he holds a sceptre inlaid with every kind of metal, with an eagle perched on the sceptre. His sandals are made of gold, as is his robe. His garments are carved with animals and with lilies. The throne is decorated with gold, precious stones, ebony, and ivory.

The statue was occasionally decorated with gifts from kings and rulers. the most notable of these gifts was a woollen curtain "adorned with Assyrian woven patterns and Pheonician dye" which was dedicated by the Syrian king Antiochus IV.

Copies of the statue were made, including a large prototype at Cyrene (Libya). None of them, however, survived to the present day. Early reconstructions such as the one by von Erlach are now believed to be rather inaccurate. For us, we can only wonder about the true appearance of the statue -- the greatest work in Greek sculpture.


The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
Similar to the Great Pyramid, we are now visiting the burial place of an ancient king, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. Yet the Mausoleum is different - so different from the Pyramid that it earned its reputation - and a spot within the list - for other reasons. Geographically, it is closer to the Temple of Artemis... And it was the beauty of the tomb rather than its size that fascinated its visitors for years.

Location
In the city of Bodrum (f.k.a. Halicarnassus) on the Aegean Sea, in south-west Turkey.

History
When the Persians expanded their ancient kingdom to include Mesopotamia, Northern India, Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor, the king could not control his vast empire without the help of local governors or rulers -- the Satraps. Like many other provinces, the kingdom of Caria in the western part of Asia Minor (Turkey) was so far from the Persian capital that it was practically autonomous. From 377 to 353 BC, king Mausollos of Caria reigned and moved his capital to Halicarnassus. Nothing is exciting about Maussollos life except the construction of his tomb. The project was conceived by his wife and sister Artemisia, and the construction might have started during the king's lifetime. The Mausoleum was completed around 350 BC, three years after Maussollos death, and one year after Artemisia's.

For 16 centuries, the Mausoleum remained in good condition until an earthquake caused some damage to the roof and colonnade. In the early fifteenth century, the Knights of St John of Malta invaded the region and built a massive crusader castle. When they decided to fortify it in 1494, they used the stones of the Mausoleum. By 1522, almost every block of the Mausoleum had been disassembled and used for construction.

Today, the massive castle still stands in Bodrum, and the polished stone and marble blocks of the Mausoleum can be spotted within the walls of the structure. Some of the sculptures survived and are today on display at the British Museum in London. These include fragment of statues and many slabs of the frieze showing the battle between the Greeks and the Amazons. At the site of the Mausoleum itself, only the foundation remains of the once magnificent Wonder.

Description
The structure was rectangular in plan, with base dimensions of about 40 m (120 ft) by 30 m (100 ft). Overlying the foundation was a stepped podium which sides were decorated with statues. The burial chamber and the sarcophagus of white alabaster decorated with gold were located on the podium and surrounded by Ionic columns. The colonnade supported a pyramid roof which was in turn decorated with statues. A statue of a chariot pulled by four horses adorned the top of the tomb.

The total height of the Mausoleum was 45 m (140 ft). This is broken down into 20 m (60 ft) for the stepped podium, 12 m (38 ft) for the colonnade, 7 m (22 ft) for the pyramid, and 6 m (20 ft) for the chariot statue at the top.

The beauty of the Mausoleum is not only in the structure itself, but in the decorations and statues that adorned the outside at different levels on the podium and the roof. These were tens of life-size as well as under and over life-size free-standing statues of people, lions, horses, and other animals. The statues were carved by four Greek sculptors: Bryaxis, Leochares, Scopas, and Timotheus, each responsible for one side. Because the statues were of people and animals, the Mausoleum holds a special place in histroy as it was not dedicated to the gods of Ancient Greece.

Since the nineteenth century, archeological excavations have been undertaken at the Mausoleum site. These excavations together with detailed descriptions by ancient historians give us a fairly good idea about the shape and appearance of the Mausoleum. A modern reconstruction of the shorter side of the Mausoleum illustrates the lavish nature of the art and architecture of the building... a building for a King whose name is celebrated in all large tombs today -- mausoleums.


The Colossus of Rhodes
The Colossus of Rhodes
From its building to the destruction of the Colossus of Rhodes lies a time span of merely 56 years. Yet the colossus earned a place in the famous list of Wonders. "But even lying on the ground, it is a marvel", said Pliny the Elder. The Colossus of Rhodes was not only a gigantic statue. It was rather a symbol of unity of the people who inhabited that beautiful Mediterranean island -- Rhodes.

Location
At the entrance of the harbor of the Mediterranean island of Rhodes in Greece.

History
Throughout most of its history, ancient Greece was comprised of city-states which had limited power beyond their boundary. On the small island of Rhodes were three of these: Ialysos, Kamiros, and Lindos. In 408 BC, the cities united to form one territory, with a unified capital, Rhodes. The city thrived commercially and had strong economic ties with their main ally, Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt. In 305 BC, the Antigonids of Macedonia who were also rivals of the Ptolemies, besieged Rhodes in an attempt to break the Rhodo-Egyptian alliance. They could never penetrate the city. When a peace agreement was reached in 304 BC, the Antagonids lifted the siege, leaving a wealth of military equipment behind. To celebrate their unity, the Rhodians sold the equipment and used the money to erect an enormous statue of their sun god, Helios.

The construction of the Colossus took 12 years and was finished in 282 BC. For years, the statue stood at the harbor entrance, until a strong earthquake hit Rhodes about 226 BC. The city was badly damaged, and the Colossus was broken at its weakest point -- the knee. The Rhodians received an immediate offer from Ptolemy III Eurgetes of Egypt to cover all restoration costs for the toppled monument. However, an oracle was consulted and forbade the re-erection. Ptolemy's offer was declined.

For almost a millennium, the statue laid broken in ruins. In AD 654, the Arabs invaded Rhodes. They disassembled the remains of the broken Colossus and sold them to a Jew from Syria. It is said that the fragments had to be transported to Syria on the backs of 900 camels.

Description
Let us first clear a misconception about the appearance of the Colossus. It has long been believed that the Colossus stood in front of the Mandraki harbor, one of many in the city of Rhodes, straddling its entrance. Given the height of the statue and the width of the harbor mouth, this picture is rather impossible than improbable. Moreover, the fallen Colossus would have blocked the harbor entrance. Recent studies suggest that it was erected either on the eastern promontory of the Mandraki harbor, or even further inland. Anyway, it did never straddle the harbor entrance.

The project was commissioned by the Rhodian sculptor Chares of Lindos. To build the statue, his workers cast the outer bronze skin parts. The base was made of white marble, and the feet and ankle of the statue were first fixed. The structure was gradually erected as the bronze form was fortified with an iron and stone framework. To reach the higher parts, an earth ramp was built around the statue and was later removed. When the colossus was finished, it stood about 33 m (110 ft) high. And when it fell, "few people can make their arms meet round the thumb", wrote Pliny.

Although we do not know the true shape and appearance of the Colossus, modern reconstructions with the statue standing upright are more accurate than older drawings. Although it disappeared from existence, the ancient World Wonder inspired modern artists such as French sculptor Auguste Bartholdi best known by his famous work: The Statue of Liberty.


The Lighthouse of Alexandria
The Lighthouse of Alexandria
Of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, only one had a practical use in addition to its architectural elegance: The Lighthouse of Alexandria. For sailors, it ensured a safe return to the Great Harbor. For architects, it meant even more: it was the tallest building on Earth. And for scientists, it was the mysterious mirror that fascinated them most... The mirror's reflection could be seen more than 50 km (35 miles) off-shore.

Location
On the ancient island of Pharos, now a promontory within the city of Alexandria in Egypt.

History
Shortly after the death of Alexander the Great, his commander Ptolemy Soter assumed power in Egypt. He had witnessed the founding of Alexandria, and established his capital there. Off of the city's coast lies a small island: Pharos. Its name, legend says, is a variation of Pharaoh's Island. The island was connected to the mainland by means of a dike - the Heptastadion - which gave the city a double harbor. And because of dangerous sailing conditions and flat coastline in the region, the construction of a lighthouse was necessary.

The project was conceived and initiated by Ptolemy Soter around 290 BC, but was completed after his death, during the reign of his son Ptolemy Philadelphus. Sostratus, a contemporary of Euclid, was the architect, but detailed calculations for the structure and its accessories were carried out at the Alexandria Library/Mouseion. The monument was dedicated to the Savior Gods: Ptolemy Soter (lit. savior) and his wife Berenice. For centuries, the Lighthouse of Alexandria (occasionally referred to as the Pharos Lighthouse) was used to mark the harbor, using fire at night and reflecting sun rays during the day. It was even shown on Roman coins, just as famous monuments are depicted on currency today.

When the Arabs conquered Egypt, they admired Alexandria and its wealth. The Lighthouse continues to be mentioned in their writings and travelers accounts. But the new rulers moved their capital to Cairo since they had no ties to the Mediterranean. When the mirror was brought down mistakenly, they did not restore it back into place. In AD 956, an earthquake shook Alexandria, and caused little damage to the Lighthouse. It was later in 1303 and in 1323 that two stronger earthquakes left a significant impression on the structure. When the famous Arab traveler Ibn Battuta visited Alexandria in 1349, he could not enter the ruinous monument or even climb to its doorway.

The final chapter in the history of the Lighthouse came in AD 1480 when the Egyptian Mamelouk Sultan, Qaitbay, decided to fortify Alexandria's defense. He built a medieval fort on the same spot where the Lighthouse once stood, using the fallen stone and marble.

Description
Of the six vanished Wonders, the Lighthouse of Alexandria was the last to disappear. Therefore we have adequately accurate knowledge of its location and appearance. Ancient accounts such as those by Strabo and Pliny the Elder give us a brief description of the "tower" and the magnificent white marble cover. They tell us how the mysterious mirror could reflect the light tens of kilometers away. Legend says the mirror was also used to detect and burn enemy ships before they could reach the shore.

In 1166, an Arab traveler, Abou-Haggag Al-Andaloussi visited the Lighthouse. He documented a wealth of information and an gave accurate description of the structure which helped modern archeologists reconstruct the monument. It was composed of three stages: The lowest square, 55.9 m (183.4 ft) high with a cylindrical core; the middle octagonal with a side length of 18.30 m (60.0 ft) and a height of 27.45 m (90.1 ft); and the third circular 7.30 m (24.0 ft) high. The total height of the building including the foundation base was about 117 m (384 ft), equivalent to a 40-story modern building. The internal core was used as a shaft to lift the fuel needed for the fire. At the top stage, the mirror reflected sunlight during the day while fire was used during the night. In ancient times, a statue of Poseidon adorned the summit of the building.

Although the Lighthouse of Alexandria did not survive to the present day, it left its influence in various respects. From an architectural standpoint, the monument has been used as a model for many prototypes along the Mediterranean, as far away as Spain. And from a linguistic standpoint, it gave its name -- Pharos -- to all the lighthouses in the world... Just look up the dictionary for the French, Italian, or Spanish word for lighthouse.

global warming

Pemanasan global atau Global Warming adalah adanya proses peningkatan suhu rata-rata atmosfer, laut, dan daratan Bumi.
Suhu rata-rata global pada permukaan Bumi telah meningkat 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) selama seratus tahun terakhir. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) menyimpulkan bahwa, "sebagian besar peningkatan suhu rata-rata global sejak pertengahan abad ke-20 kemungkinan besar disebabkan oleh meningkatnya konsentrasi gas-gas rumah kaca akibat aktivitas manusia"[1] melalui efek rumah kaca. Kesimpulan dasar ini telah dikemukakan oleh setidaknya 30 badan ilmiah dan akademik, termasuk semua akademi sains nasional dari negara-negara G8. Akan tetapi, masih terdapat beberapa ilmuwan yang tidak setuju dengan beberapa kesimpulan yang dikemukakan IPCC tersebut.
Model iklim yang dijadikan acuan oleh projek IPCC menunjukkan suhu permukaan global akan meningkat 1.1 hingga 6.4 °C (2.0 hingga 11.5 °F) antara tahun 1990 dan 2100.[1] Perbedaan angka perkiraan itu disebabkan oleh penggunaan skenario-skenario berbeda mengenai emisi gas-gas rumah kaca di masa mendatang, serta model-model sensitivitas iklim yang berbeda. Walaupun sebagian besar penelitian terfokus pada periode hingga 2100, pemanasan dan kenaikan muka air lautdiperkirakan akan terus berlanjut selama lebih dari seribu tahun walaupun tingkat emisi gas rumah kaca telah stabil.[1] Ini mencerminkan besarnya kapasitas panas dari lautan.
Meningkatnya suhu global diperkirakan akan menyebabkan perubahan-perubahan yang lain seperti naiknya permukaan air laut, meningkatnya intensitas fenomena cuaca yang ekstrim,[2] serta perubahan jumlah dan pola presipitasi. Akibat-akibat pemanasan global yang lain adalah terpengaruhnya hasil pertanian, hilangnya gletser, dan punahnya berbagai jenis hewan.
Beberapa hal-hal yang masih diragukan para ilmuwan adalah mengenai jumlah pemanasan yang diperkirakan akan terjadi di masa depan, dan bagaimana pemanasan serta perubahan-perubahan yang terjadi tersebut akan bervariasi dari satu daerah ke daerah yang lain. Hingga saat ini masih terjadi perdebatan politik dan publik di dunia mengenai apa, jika ada, tindakan yang harus dilakukan untuk mengurangi atau membalikkan pemanasan lebih lanjut atau untuk beradaptasi terhadap konsekuensi-konsekuensi yang ada. Sebagian besar pemerintahan negara-negara di dunia telah menandatangani dan meratifikasi Protokol Kyoto, yang mengarah pada pengurangan emisi gas-gas rumah kaca.